electromagnetic flow measurement

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Effect of microwave radiation on Bacillus subtilis spores INTRODUCTION The use of microwave radiation for bacterial killing is particularly appealing for sterilization of hospital waste (Pellerin 1994; Tata and Beone 1995; Atwater et al. 1997; Sasaki et al. 1998a) and industrial food processing (Deng et al. 1990; Wang 1993; Sato et al. 1996; Kozempel et al. 1997; Kuchma 1997; Pagan et al. 1998; Vaid and Bishop 1998) because of its low cost. Hospital waste sterilization is a problem of increasing importance and a wide variety of efficacious sterilization procedures are currently used, such as stoving, high-pressure steaming and irradiation with ultraviolet or c-rays. Traditional incinerators are very expensive, particularly when used in accordance with the increasingly stringent anti-air-pollution standards; electron beams require extremely expensive machinery, and sterilization equipment using c-ray sources is strictly regulated for safety and control restraints. In industrial food processing, microwave energy has been used to pasteurize and sterilize food in a shorter time compared with conventional methods (Heddleson et al. 1996; Hammad 1998; Aziz et al. 2002). Therefore, microwave radiation is regarded as a valid alternative method for killing bacteria because of its effectiveness, commercial availability, and lower cost compared with other technologies (Wu 1996; Pierson and Sauer 1997; Sasaki et al. 1998b). Although the efficacy of microwaves in microbial destruction has been reported in many studies, the actual mechanism of bacterial killing has not been interpreted in the same way. Two main conflicting conclusions emerge: some researchers attribute the

electromagnetic flow measurement|rotameter flow meter

killing effect exerted by microwaves to the heat the waves generate (Yeo et al. 1999), while others propose a nonthermal effect due to microwave energy itself (Barnes and Ho 1977; Salvatorelli et al. 1996; Wu 1996). Still to be addressed is whether microwave radiation (as a electromagnetic field, E-field) influences the chemistry of biological molecules and the assembly of structural cell components independently of the thermal effect generated by waves. The lack of standardized experimental conditions providing exposure of samples to a defined and constant microwave E-field has contributed to the debate. Indeed, the applicators most frequently used to kill/inactivate bacteria with microwaves are multimode generators (Barnes and Ho 1977; Salvatorelli et al. 1996), similar to microwave ovens. These devices have several intrinsic disadvantages, primarily the nonuniform distribution, in time and in space, of the microwave E-field inside the metal enclosure. Moreover, they do not allow accurate measurements of either the temperature or the intensity and direction of the E-field in proximity to the samples. Therefore, commercial devices are not adequate for determination of the intensity of the E-field and the time-duration of microwave application that leads to complete microbial inactivation. These data are of intrinsic microbiological importance and are essential for the design of waste or food sterilization plants based on microwave radiation. The single-mode, nonresonant waveguide applicator described herein allowed a uniform and measurable distribution of both the microwave E-field and the temperature value applied to bacterial samples to be obtained. This device was used to expose Bacillus subtilis spores to an E-f

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